Seasonal evergreen forest

 

Seasonal tropical forest: also known as moist deciduous, semi-evergreen seasonal, tropical mixed or monsoon forests, typically contain a range of tree species: only some of which drop some or all of their leaves during the dry season. This tropical forest is classified under the Walter system as (ii) tropical climate with high overall rainfall (typically in the 1000–2500 mm range) concentrated in the summer wet season and cooler “winter” dry season: representing a range of habitats influenced by monsoon (Am) or tropical wet savannah (Aw) climates (as in the Köppen climate classification). Drier forests in the Aw climate zone are typically deciduous and placed in the Tropical dry forest biome: with further transitional zones (ecotones) of savannah woodland then tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands.

Climate

 

The climate of seasonal forests is typically controlled by a system called the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) located near the equator and created by the convergence of the trade winds from the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. The position of these bands vary seasonally, moving north in the northern summer and south in the northern winter, and ultimately controlling the wet and dry seasons in the tropics. These regions appear to have experienced strong warming, at a mean rate of 0.26 degrees Celsius per decade, which coincides with a global rise in temperature resulting from the anthropocentric inputs of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Studies have also found that precipitation has declined and tropical Asia has experienced an increase in dry season intensity whereas Amazonian has no significant pattern change in precipitation or dry season. Additionally, El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events drive the inter-annual climatic variability in temperature and precipitation and result in drought and increased intensity of the dry season. As anthropogenic warming increases the intensity and frequency of ENSO will increase, rendering tropical rainforest regions susceptible to stress and increased mortality of trees and other plants.

Structure

As with tropical rainforests there are different canopy layers, but these may be less pronounced in mixed forests, which are often characterised by numerous lianas due to their growth advantage during the dry season. The colloquial term jungle, originally derived from Sanskrit, has no specific ecological meaning but originally referred to this type of primary and especially secondary forest in the Indian subcontinent. Determining which stands of mixed forest are primary and secondary can be problematic, since the species mixture is influenced by factors such as soil depth and climate, as well as human interference.

Mangrove

A mangrove is a shrub or small tree that grows in coastal saline or brackish water. The term is also used for tropical coastal vegetation consisting of such species. Mangroves occur worldwide in the tropics and subtropics, mainly between latitudes 25° N and 25° S. The total mangrove forest area of the world in 2000 was 137,800 square kilometres (53,200 sq mi), spanning 118 countries and territories.

Mangroves are salt-tolerant trees, also called halophytes, and are adapted to life in harsh coastal conditions. They contain a complex salt filtration system and complex root system to cope with salt water immersion and wave action. They are adapted to the low oxygen (anoxic) conditions of waterlogged mud.

The word is used in at least three senses: (1) most broadly to refer to the habitat and entire plant assemblage or mangal, for which the terms mangrove forest biome, and mangrove swamp are also used, (2) to refer to all trees and large shrubs in the mangrove swamp, and (3) narrowly to refer to the mangrove family of plants, the Rhizophoraceae, or even more specifically just to mangrove trees of the genus Rhizophora.

The mangrove biome, or mangal, is a distinct saline woodland or shrubland habitat characterized by depositional coastal environments, where fine sediments (often with high organic content) collect in areas protected from high-energy wave action. The saline conditions tolerated by various mangrove species range from brackish water, through pureseawater (3 to 4%), to water concentrated by evaporation to over twice the salinity of ocean seawater (up to 9%).

Etymology

The term “mangrove” comes to English from Spanish (perhaps by way of Portuguese), and is likely to originate from Guarani. It was earlier “mangrow” (from Portuguese mangueor Spanish mangle), but this word was corrupted via folk etymology influence of the word “grove”.

Ecology

Mangrove swamps are found in tropical and subtropical tidal areas. Areas where mangal occurs include estuaries and marine shorelines.

The intertidal existence to which these trees are adapted represents the major limitation to the number of species able to thrive in their habitat. High tide brings in salt water, and when the tide recedes, solar evaporation of the seawater in the soil leads to further increases in salinity. The return of tide can flush out these soils, bringing them back to salinity levels comparable to that of seawater.

At low tide, organisms are also exposed to increases in temperature and desiccation, and are then cooled and flooded by the tide. Thus, for a plant to survive in this environment, it must tolerate broad ranges of salinity, temperature, and moisture, as well as a number of other key environmental factors—thus only a select few species make up the mangrove tree community.

About 110 species are considered “mangroves”, in the sense of being a tree that grows in such a saline swamp, though only a few are from the mangrove plant genus,Rhizophora. However, a given mangrove swamp typically features only a small number of tree species. It is not uncommon for a mangrove forest in the Caribbean to feature only three or four tree species. For comparison, the tropical rainforest biome contains thousands of tree species, but this is not to say mangrove forests lack diversity. Though the trees themselves are few in species, the ecosystem that these trees create provides a home (habitat) for a great variety of other species.

Mangrove plants require a number of physiological adaptations to overcome the problems of anoxia, high salinity and frequent tidal inundation. Each species has its own solutions to these problems; this may be the primary reason why, on some shorelines, mangrove tree species show distinct zonation. Small environmental variations within a mangal may lead to greatly differing methods for coping with the environment. Therefore, the mix of species is partly determined by the tolerances of individual species to physical conditions, such as tidal inundation and salinity, but may also be influenced by other factors, such as predation of plant seedlings by crabs.

Once established, mangrove roots provide an oyster habitat and slow water flow, thereby enhancing sediment deposition in areas where it is already occurring. The fine, anoxic sediments under mangroves act as sinks for a variety of heavy (trace) metals which colloidal particles in the sediments have scavenged from the water. Mangrove removal disturbs these underlying sediments, often creating problems of trace metal contamination of seawater and biota.

Mangrove swamps protect coastal areas from erosion, storm surge (especially during hurricanes), and tsunamis. The mangroves’ massive root systems are efficient at dissipating wave energy. Likewise, they slow down tidal water enough so its sediment is deposited as the tide comes in, leaving all except fine particles when the tide ebbs. In this way, mangroves build their own environments. Because of the uniqueness of mangrove ecosystems and the protection against erosion they provide, they are often the object of conservation programs, including national biodiversity action plans.

Mangrove swamps’ effectiveness in terms of erosion control can sometimes be overstated. Wave energy is typically low in areas where mangroves grow, so their effect on erosion is measured over long periods. Their capacity to limit high-energy wave erosion is in relation to events such as storm surges and tsunamis.

The unique ecosystem found in the intricate mesh of mangrove roots offers a quiet marine region for young organisms. In areas where roots are permanently submerged, the organisms they host include algae, barnacles, oysters, sponges, and bryozoans, which all require a hard surface for anchoring while they filter feed. Shrimps and mud lobstersuse the muddy bottoms as their home. Mangrove crabs munch on the mangrove leaves, adding nutrients to the mangal muds for other bottom feeders. In at least some cases, export of carbon fixed in mangroves is important in coastal food webs.

Biology

Of the recognized 110 mangrove species, only about 54 species in 20 genera from 16 families constitute the “true mangroves”, species that occur almost exclusively in mangrove habitats. Demonstrating convergent evolution, many of these species found similar solutions to the tropical conditions of variable salinity, tidal range (inundation), anaerobicsoils and intense sunlight. Plant biodiversity is generally low in a given mangal. The greatest biodiversity occurs in the mangal of New Guinea, Indonesia and Malaysia.

Adaptations to low oxygen

Red mangroves, which can survive in the most inundated areas, prop themselves above the water level with stilt roots and can then absorb air through pores in their bark (lenticels). Black mangroves live on higher ground and make many pneumatophores (specialised root-like structures which stick up out of the soil like straws for breathing) which are also covered in lenticels.

These “breathing tubes” typically reach heights of up to 30 cm, and in some species, over 3 m. The four types of pneumatophores are stilt or prop type, snorkel or peg type, knee type, and ribbon or plank type. Knee and ribbon types may be combined with buttress roots at the base of the tree. The roots also contain wide aerenchyma to facilitate transport within the plants.

Limiting salt intake

Red mangroves exclude salt by having significantly impermeable roots which are highly suberised (impregnated with suberin), acting as an ultra-filtration mechanism to exclude sodium salts from the rest of the plant. Analysis of water inside mangroves has shown 90% to 97% of salt has been excluded at the roots. In a frequently cited concept that has become known as the “sacrificial leaf”, salt which does accumulate in the shoot (sprout) then concentrates in old leaves, which the plant then sheds. However, recent research suggests the older, yellowing leaves have no more measurable salt content than the other, greener leaves. Red mangroves can also store salt in cell vacuoles. As seen in the photograph on the right, white or grey mangroves can secrete salts directly; they have two salt glands at each leaf base (correlating with their name—they are covered in white salt crystals).

Limiting water loss

Because of the limited fresh water available in salty intertidal soils, mangroves limit the amount of water they lose through their leaves. They can restrict the opening of their stomata (pores on the leaf surfaces, which exchange carbon dioxide gas and water vapour during photosynthesis). They also vary the orientation of their leaves to avoid the harsh midday sun and so reduce evaporation from the leaves. Anthony Calfo, a noted aquarium author, observed anecdotally a red mangrove in captivity only grows if its leaves are misted with fresh water several times a week, simulating frequent tropical rainstorms.

Nutrient uptake

Because the soil is perpetually waterlogged, little free oxygen is available. Anaerobic bacteria liberate nitrogen gas, soluble ferrum (iron), inorganic phosphates, sulfides and methane, which make the soil much less nutritious. Pneumatophores (aerial roots) allow mangroves to absorb gases directly from the atmosphere, and other nutrients such as iron, from the inhospitable soil. Mangroves store gases directly inside the roots, processing them even when the roots are submerged during high tide.

Increasing survival of offspring 

Red mangrove seeds germinate while still on the parent tree.

In this harsh environment, mangroves have evolved a special mechanism to help their offspring survive. Mangrove seeds are buoyant and are therefore suited to water dispersal. Unlike most plants, whose seeds germinate in soil, many mangroves (e.g. red mangrove) are viviparous, whose seeds germinate while still attached to the parent tree. Once germinated, the seedling grows either within the fruit (e.g.Aegialitis, Avicennia and Aegiceras), or out through the fruit (e.g. Rhizophora, Ceriops, Bruguiera and Nypa) to form a propagule (a ready-to-go seedling) which can produce its own food via photosynthesis.

The mature propagule then drops into the water, which can transport it great distances. Propagules can survive desiccation and remain dormant for over a year before arriving in a suitable environment. Once a propagule is ready to root, its density changes so the elongated shape now floats vertically rather than horizontally. In this position, it is more likely to lodge in the mud and root. If it does not root, it can alter its density and drift again in search of more favorable conditions.

Taxonomy and evolution

The following listing (modified from Tomlinson, 1986) gives the number of species of mangroves in each listed plant genus and family. Mangrove environments in the Eastern Hemisphere harbor six times as many species of trees and shrubs as do mangroves in the New World. Genetic divergence of mangrove lineages from terrestrial relatives, in combination with fossil evidence, suggests mangrove diversity is limited by evolutionary transition into the stressful marine environment, and the number of mangrove lineages has increased steadily over the Tertiary with little global extinction.

A red mangrove, Rhizophora mangle.

Above and below water view at the edge of the mangal.

Salt crystals formed on grey mangrove leaf.

Red mangrove seeds germinate while still on the parent tree.

PINE-OAK FOREST

Establishing secure tenure is widely recognized as a fundamental component of sustainable forest management. Policy-makers generally prefer privatization to achieve these ends, although common property institutions may also be appropriate. But if common property tenure is insecure and fails to control exploitation, theory predicts that private tenure should lead to better forest conditions. In this case study of a western Honduras community, forest mensuration data were collected from four private forests and two relatively open access common property forests. Statistical analyses failed to find consistent, significant differences in vegetation structure or soils related to tenure. Notable contrasts between forests reflected historical conditions and owner preferences. Neither form of tenure appeared to emphasize concerns for sustainable management, and ongoing processes of change constrained the possibility for limiting common property forest exploitation. The study adds to others which show that the outcomes of private or common property tenure relate substantially to the socioeconomic, political, and ecological context.

PINE FOREST

Temperate pine forest is a terrestrial biome found in temperate regions of the world with warm summers and cool winters and adequate rainfall to sustain a forest. In most temperate coniferous forests, evergreen conifers predominate, while some are a mix of conifers and broadleaf evergreen trees and/or broadleaf deciduous trees. Temperate evergreen forests are common in the United States of America, areas of regions that have mild winters and heavy rainfall, or inland in drier climates or mountain areas. Temperate coniferous forests are found mainly in the Northern Hemisphere in North America, Europe, and Asia. A separate ecoregion, the tropical coniferous forests, occurs in more tropical climates.

OAK FOREST

An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus of the beech family, Fagaceae. There are approximately 600 extant species of oaks. The common name “oak” also appears in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus (stone oaks), as well as in those of unrelated species such as Grevillea robusta (silky oaks) and the Casuarinaceae (she-oaks). The genus Quercus is native to the Northern Hemisphere, and includes deciduous and evergreen species extending from cool temperate to tropical latitudes in the Americas, Asia, Europe, and North Africa. North America contains the largest number of oak species, with approximately 90 occurring in the United States, while Mexico has 160 species of which 109 are endemic. The second greatest center of oak diversity is China, which contains approximately 100 species.

Dry forest

Tropical dry forest

Tropical Dry Forest

Climate

Temperatures are high all year, but there is a better-developed dry season than in the tropical rain forest. Evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation for enough of the year to have a significant effect on the vegetation. Edaphic conditions (dryer, better-drained soil) may produce this vegetation type in the rain-forest zone.

Soils

Soils are essentially like those of tropical rain forests, with the same processes.

Vegetation

The deciduousness of most tree species is a significant difference from the tropical rain forest. Many evergreen tree species of the rain forest become deciduous in this zone. Growing conditions are not so optimal, thus the tree canopy is lower (10-30m) than in the tropical rain forest and the trees less dense where drought is more extreme. The undergrowth is often dense and tangled because of greater light penetration. Lianas are much less common than in the rain forest, not such an important growth form where light is less limiting and also perhaps highly susceptible to desiccation. Drought-resistant epiphytes (orchids, bromeliads and cacti) may be abundant. The trees have thicker, more ridged, bark; deeper roots without buttresses; much more variable leaves, including many compound-leaved legumes; and more species with thorns.

Diversity

Species diversity is invariably lower than in nearby tropical rain forests. Environmental stress increases with instability (seasonality) of the environment, and fewer plants and animals can generate homeostatic mechanisms (for internal stability) to cope. There is still relatively high diversity on a world scale, but most of the taxonomic groups in the dry forest are less diverse than in the rain forest. Dry forest is important as habitat for migratory birds in their nonbreeding season (Central America, India).

Plant Adaptations

Trees have thicker bark (antifire adaptation), thicker and smaller leaves (antidesiccation adaptation), thorns (antiherbivore adaptation), longer roots (to reach deeper water table), and other features along a gradient toward the well-developed drought adaptations of woody plants of the savanna and desert zones (which see).

Animal Adaptations

With more spaces between trees, larger mammals are more prominent in this environment. There is more seasonality in reproductive cycles, timed with rains in most groups. In motile species, migration may occur in the dry season to wetter environments, including nearby rain forest, gallery forest, and wet bottomlands.

Human Effects

The high productivity during the rainy season, coupled with relief from rains during the dry season, makes this a favorable environment for humans and domestic stock, so much of the zone has been cleared and developed for pastureland as well as agriculture. Dry forests vary from largely extirpated to still extensive, depending on the geographic region, but in some regions they are more endangered than rain forests.

DECIDOUS FOREST

 

Deciduous forests Weather Regions of rainy weather with warm summers and cold winters, but more temperate than those of the boreal zone. The average temperature of the coldest month is between -5 and +5 ºC. The precipitations are quite abundant, from 200 to 1 500 mm. There is humidity throughout the year

Floor They are mostly brown soils, with a humus that is mineralized fairly quickly (mull or moder), with sufficient humidity and good aeration thanks to the large number of earthworms that usually contain. For all these properties are soils particularly favorable to vegetation. Also, during the cold season they only freeze in the most superficial layer.

Flora

Trees like beech, oak, poplar and chestnut trees predominate. Among them grow different shrubs, such as the bramble and herbaceous plants.The trees grow very well in spring and summer, when both humidity and temperature are adequate. When the unfavorable cold season arrives, they paralyze the growth and lose the leaves, since they will not carry out photosynthesis and only serve to lose water and would be damaged by frost.

Fauna The fauna is more varied than that of the boreal forests. It is formed by small rodents, such as squirrels and mice; herbivores, such as deer and wild boars, and carnivores, such as martens, badgers, foxes and lynxes, among others. In winter, the forest changes a lot. Birds migrate to warmer areas, reptiles paralyze their activity and bears hibernate and survive thanks to the fat they store during summer and autumn.

The destruction of the deciduous forest In the last time, this forest has gradually been destroyed by the intervention of man. The forests of Europe and Asia have been eliminated in large proportions, basically to allocate the land to agricultural tasks. Thus, what remains is mainly a semi-natural forest (half native and half managed for forestry). The exception to this scenario is made up of some areas of the mountainous regions of Central Europe. In contrast, in North America there are some areas of native deciduous forest, despite logging, fires and road construction. Another problem, whose cause it is still unknown, it is the forest recession, that is, the increase of the mortality of several trees of the deciduous forest. A disproportionate number of sugar maples (Acer saccharum) is in regression, with some areas experiencing mortality of up to 59%. Other trees in recession are beech trees, red maples and American ash trees.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Animals in Honduras

Honduras is the second-largest nation in Central America, stretching across the isthmus from the Caribbean to the Pacific. Despite aggressive deforestation, Honduras still maintains more forested area than most other countries in the region. Several types of forest dominate the landscape, including cloud forest, pine forest, rain forest and mangroves. Plant and animal species abound in the diverse forest ecosystems of Honduras, including species that have disappeared from the rest of the region.

Mammals
More than 200 species of mammal are found in the forests of Honduras. Bats (Chiroptera) account for nearly half the mammals in the country with 98 known species occupying every forest ecosystem. The iconic jaguar (Panthera onca) is one of the rarest species in all of Central America. Most frequently seen in mangrove areas, jaguars are an endangered species in Honduras. West Indian manatees (Trichechus manatus), once common along the Caribbean coast of Honduras, are now rarely seen except in remote mangrove areas. Honduras’ national animal, the white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), is the largest deer species in the country. Most often seen in the lowlands and pine forests, the white-tailed deer is a protected species. A wide variety of monkeys are also found in Honduras, including the white-headed capuchin (Cebus capucinus), Mexican spider monkey (Ateles geoffroyi vellerosus) and golden-mantled howler monkey (Alouatta palliata palliata)

Birds
Honduras has an exceptionally rich diversity of bird species. There are 18 parrot species, including the orange-chinned parakeet (Brotogeris jugularis), great green macaw (Ara ambigua), Pacific parakeet (Aratinga strenua) and the scarlet macaw (Ara macao), which is Honduras’ national bird. Found in high-altitude tropical forests, the black-capped swallow (Notiochelidon pileata) is a migratory bird common in Honduras. The chestnut-mandibled toucan (Ramphastos swainsonii) is a frequent sight in the coastal lowland forests of Honduras. Known for their brightly colored face and exaggerated bill, they are sometimes kept as pets despite being a protected species.

Amphibians
There are 137 species of amphibians (frogs, toads, salamanders, and caecilians) known from Honduras, including 52 species that are endemic to the country. Anurans are the most species-rich group (97 species), followed by salamanders (38 species) and caecilians (2 species). While new species are still expected to be discovered, chytridiomycosis and deforestation are threats to the amphibian fauna. At least one species, the frog Craugastor chrysozetetes, is believed to be extinct

Coral
The coasts of Honduras, to the north and east are on the Caribbean and in the south by the Gulf of Fonseca. In the turquoise waters of the Sea Caribbean can appreciate by means of diving the Coral reefs with their diversity of calcareous seaweeds, red seaweeds, (Rhodophyta), like marine meadows, among other aquatic plants that tackle a natural ecosystem.

Among the fauna that can be found on the Honduran coasts, are the Shark whale, dolphins,a variety of tropical fish, shrimp (Caridea) and many other species.

Cloud Forest

A cloud forest, also called a water forest, is a generally tropical or subtropical, evergreen, montane, moist forest characterized by a persistent, frequent or seasonal low-level cloud cover, usually at the canopy level, formally described in the International  Cloud Atlas as silvagenitus.

Distribution and Climate

Dependent on local climate, which is affected by the distance to the sea, the exposition and the latitude (from 23°N to 25°S), the altitude varies from 500 m to 4000 m above sea level. Typically, there is a relatively small band of altitude in which the atmospheric environment is suitable for cloud forest development. This is characterized by persistent fog at the vegetation level, resulting in the reduction of direct sunlight and thus of evapotranspiration. With in cloud forests, much of the moisture available to plants arrives in the form of fog drip, where fog condenses on tree leaves and then drips onto the ground below.

 While cloud forest today is the most widely used term, in some regions, these ecosystems or special types of cloud forests are called mossy forest, elfin forest montane thicket, and dwarf cloud forest.

Characteristics

In comparison with lower tropical moist forests, cloud forests show a reduced tree stature combined with increased stem density and generally the lower diversity of woody plants.Trees in these regions are generally shorter and more heavily stemmed than in lower-altitude forests in the same regions, often with gnarled trunks and branches, forming dense, compact crowns. Their leaves become smaller, thicker and harder with increasing altitude.The high moisture promotes the development of a high biomass and biodiversity of epiphyte, particularly bryophytes, lichens, ferns, bromeliads and orchids. The number of endemic plants can be very high.

 

Temperate cloud forests

Although far from being universally accepted as true cloud forests, several forests in temperate regions have strong similarities with tropical cloud forests. The term is further confused by occasional reference to cloud forests in tropical countries as “temperate” due to the cooler climate associated with these misty forests.

Cloud Forest in Honduras

Over 100 Tropical Montane Cloud Forest “islands” are found on isolated mountaintops across the Chortis Highlands section of Mesoamerica (brown dots on map at right), and range from as low as 1000 meters to almost 3000 meters above sea level. Habitats include “classic” epiphyte-laden, old-growth forest and areas of second-growth as well as mossy woods, elfin forests, and high-altitude fir and spruce forests. While 75% of TMCFs in Honduras receive some degree of protection, less than 20% are adequately known in biological terms. There is an extremely high degree of endemism in cloud forests, peaking in the bosques nublados of Honduras, which are the richest in this respect anywhere in Mesoamerica.​

CELAQUE:

Is an example of cloud forest.

Rain Forest

Rain forests play an invaluable role in sustaining life, but every year, large portions of them are cut down for logging, mining, and cattle ranches.

The rain forest is made up of four layers: emergent, upper canopy, understory, and forest floor. Emergent trees grow far apart and tall, their branches reaching above the canopy. The upper canopy houses most of the rain forest’s animal species, and forms a roof that blocks most light from reaching below it. The understory, usually shaded and home to bushes and shrubs as well as the branches of canopy trees. The forest floor is in complete shade, meaning there is little likelihood of plants growing there and making it easy to walk through the forest.

DEFORESTATION

Recently, deforestation has reduced the amount of rain forest present around the globe.

In Brazil, which houses about a third of the remaining tropical rain forestson Earth, more than 19 percent of the Amazonian rain forests were lost to deforestation since 1970, when only 2.4 percent of the rain forests there had been cleared.

Biologists worry about the long-term consequences. Drought may be one. Some rain forests, including the Amazon, began experiencing drought in the 1990s, possibly due to deforestation and global warming.

Efforts to discourage deforestation, mainly through sustainable-logging initiatives, are underway on a very limited basis but have had a negligible impact so far.

WHY “RAIN” FORESTS?

The rain forest is nearly self-watering. Plants release water into the atmosphere through a process called transpiration. In the tropics, each canopy tree can release about 200 gallons (760 liters) of water each year. The moisture helps create the thick cloud cover that hangs over most rain forests. Even when not raining, these clouds keep the rain forest humid and warm.

 

BENEFITS OF RAIN FOREST PLANTS

The environment of rain forests is ideal for plants: An estimated two-thirds of the world’s plant species grow in the rain forest.

RELATED STORIES

Plants in the rain forest grow very close together and contend with the constant threat of insect predators. They have adapted by making chemicals that researchers have found useful as medicines. Bioprospecting, or going into the rain forest in search of plants that can be used in foods, cosmetics, and medicines, has become big business during the past decade, and the amount that native communities are compensated for this varies from almost nothing to a share in later profits.

The National Cancer Institute (NCI)estimates that 70 percent of the anti-cancer plants identified so far are rain forest plants. A new drug under development by a private pharmaceutical company, possibly for treating HIV, is Calanolide A, which is derived from a tree discovered on Borneo, according to NCI.

Many trees and plants, like orchids, have been removed from the rain forest and cultivated. Brazil nut trees are one valuable tree that refuses to grow anywhere but in undisturbed sections of the Amazon rain forest. There, it is pollinated by bees that also visit orchids, and its seeds are spread by the agouti, a small tree mammal.

 

 

Coastal Ecosystem

 

Coastal ecosystems include salt marshes, mangroves, wetlands, estuaries and bays. Each type of coastal ecosystem is home to many different plants and animals. Coastal ecosystems are sensitive to changes in the environment. Changes could result in destruction and complete loss.

 

Humans and Coastal Ecosystems

Humans rely on coastal ecosystems for food, recreation, transportation and economic growth. With human development, such as coastal construction, comes the risk of harming coastal ecosystems. The government has formed organizations, such as the National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science, to inform construction companies about environmental dangers of changing coastal ecosystems.

Environmenal Factors affecting Coastal Ecosystems

Erosion and accretion factor into the site and season of coastal ecosystems. The site-specific factors include the extent and health of coral reefs,and the alterations to dune systems. Each of these factors could improve coastal regions or deteriorate conditions for wildlife in the area. Season-specific patterns like wave and current patterns affect erosion and soil deposits in coastal ecosystems.

Natural Phenomenons and Coastal Ecosystems

Hurricanes and El Nino, as well as other natural phenomenons, have damaged coastal ecosytems. The damage includes erosion of soil by coastal regions and runoff areas into the ocean, which can create some pollution problems. With each hurricane and natural phenomenon comes the loss of marine and plant life which may never be restored.

La Naturaleza En Honduras

Naturaleza

Honduras es una región en la que podemos encontrar más de una docena de parques Nacionales, dos reservas de la biosfera y distintos espacios protegidos donde habitan más de un centenar de aves, bosques, mamíferos como manatíes… el más importante es el Parque Nacional de Pico Alto.

Honduras cuenta con un bosque húmedo tropical, cuenta con manglares, cocoteros, cayos, islas que son reservas naturales, así como la segunda barrera de coral más grande del mundo.

Es posible visitar una buena parte de las áreas protegidas,playa, acantilados, islas, cayos, fondos marinos, bosques, ríos…

Los parques más destacados de Honduras son el parque nacional pico bonito, en la zona Norte; el Parque Nacional Janet Kawas; el Parque Nacional Capiro y Calentura;el parque Nacional Celaque; La Reserva de los Cayos; la Reserva Silvestre de los Ríos Salado y Cuero o la Reserva de Laguna de Guaimoreto entre otros lugares.